Fulfillment in Teaching Undergraduates to Conduct Research

Guest Blogger: Jamila Cupid

I have been learning quite a bit about conducting research with undergraduate students.  At first, I was helping students to design their own research studies and then deliver presentations at conferences.  They have produced some impressive work of their own and I merely guided them and helped them package the final products.  It has proven rewarding for the students, as they take ownership over their work.  It is also fulfilling for me to see them grow in this manner.  Just as they have advanced in scholarship, so have I.  Over the past couple of years, I have worked with undergraduates to conduct larger, faculty-led studies.  I have found that it is an excellent opportunity both to train them in additional areas of research and to help me identify segments of the research that need improvement. 

This past year, while carrying out a study on a digital media campaign in popular culture with two research partners, I was able to work closely with several undergraduate research assistants.  They learned how to read articles for background information and create annotated bibliographies, apply theories to research, and implement a quantitative content analysis in order to code images and text.  In addition to them gaining this valuable skill set, they were able to develop greater critical thinking skills beyond that which they exercised in the classroom.  Upon completion, they were confident enough in their accomplishments to present their portions of the study at a conference and in other settings.  The presentation of their work impressed faculty and intrigued their peers.  They actually stirred an interest in a number of their peers who previously thought research to be boring and tedious.  I learned that students are the best marketing tool I have in attracting other students to give research a try. 

Consequently, I have been inspired by these eager, novice researchers to teach future courses focused in training students to conduct studies on a higher level.  I am also strategizing ways to better help students with their individual research projects, now that I have a keener eye on pinpointing pitfalls and strongpoints at their level.  Then, of course, I expect my research minions to multiply and persuade many more undergraduates to join the magnificent world of research!  I aspire to the heights of my colleagues who have a long, robust track record of engaging their students through their scholarship and I encourage those who have never tried it to pull students into their next research project.    

Pedagogy vs Andragogy - How do you teach?

Guest Blogger: Frank Worts

Colleges and universities over the last 70 years have experienced two major shifts. One, there has been a shift in the undergraduate and graduate student populations from predominantly young, high school graduate, full-time White male students from upper income families to part-time older men and women, people of color, disabled persons, and low income students. This reality has exacerbated the task of instructors and administrators to address the multiplicity of personal, social, cultural, and educational issues that are represented in every college and university classroom (Anson & Miller-Cochran, 2009; Barrington, 2004, p. 424; Census Bureau, 1999; Schuetze & Slowey, 2002, p. 314; Zosky, Unger, White, & Mills, 2003, p. 186).

To address this changing population and the shift in skills that this population brings to the graduate and undergraduate classroom, many universities have attempted to use technology to assist instructors to address the differences and the readiness levels of their student populations. From my perspective, for instructors in higher education to make this shift using technology, it is important to examine courses from two specific perspectives – the content and process of instruction.

Malcolm Knowles’ theory of andragogy outlines effective methodologies for adult learning. When this theory is integrated into our instructional strategy, learning environments using technology can create lessons that address the needs of students young or old. Most of us are very familiar with the pedagogical and andragogical models. Research argues for the effectiveness and inappropriateness of each model. The models differ in six assumptions about younger and older learners. The six assumptions and differences are identified in table 1.

Table 1 summarizes the differences between the pedagogical and andragogical models:

Assumption about Learners	Pedagogical Model	Andragogical Model
1. Need to know	Learners need to know what the teacher tells them.	Learner need to know why something is important prior to learning it.
2. The learner’s self-concept	Learner has a dependent personality.	Learners are responsible for their own decisions.
3. The role of the learner’s experience	The learner’s experience is of little worth.	The learner’s experience has great importance.
4. Readiness to learn.	Learners become ready to learn what the teacher requires.	Learners become ready to learn when they see content as relevant to their lives.
5. Orientation to learning	Learners expect subject-centered content.	Learners expect life-centered content.
6. Motivation	Learners are motivated by external forces.	Learners are motivated by primarily by internal forces.

(Boulton-Lewis et al. 1996, 89-90; Knowles et al. 1998, 64-8).

To apply Knowles theory to our lesson plans, we need to complete a formative assessment of each or our students to assess where they stand in relation to the six aspects of their readiness to learn, and then creatively insert the use of technology to assist in their learning process.  Here are the principals and how they could be addressed with technology.

The Need to Know 

            The andragogical model holds that adults need to know the reason for learning something. Under the more standard pedagogical model it is assumed that the student will simply learn what they are told. Adults, based on life experience are used to understanding what and why they do in life, and how it will benefit them.

            One way to help students see the value of the lessons is to ask the student, either online or in an initial face-to-face meeting, to do some reflection on what they expect to learn, how they might use it in the future or how it will help them to meet their goals.

The Learner’s Self-concept

The andragogical model holds that despite the adult need for autonomy, previous schooling has probably made them dependent learners. It is the job of the educator to shift adult students away from old habits and into new self-directed patterns of learning.

Using web-based learning to create non-linear experiences allows an adult to follow the path that most appropriately reflects their need to learn. In some instances, the instructor should pay close attention to the individual student to offer suggestions for learning strategies.

The Role of the Learner’s Experience

The andragogical model holds that adults have had a lifetime of experiences. Adults want to use what they know and want to be acknowledged for having that knowledge.

The design of technology-based instruction must include opportunities for learners to use their knowledge and experience. Case studies, reflective activities, group projects that call upon the expertise of group members and lab experiments are examples of the type of learning activities which will facilitate the use of acquired expertise.

A Student’s Readiness to Learn

The andragogical model holds that adults become ready to learn something when, as Knowles explained, “they experience a need to learn it in order to cope more satisfyingly with real-life tasks or problems.” (1980, 44). Younger students should also be helped to explore the rationale for a piece of learning.

Using technology-based opportunities should, where possible, be concrete and relate to students’ needs and future goals. The experiences which simulate situations where the student will encounter a need for the knowledge or skill presented.

The Student’s Orientation to Learning

The andragogical model holds that adults are life, task or problem-centered in their orientation to learning. They want to see how what they are learning will apply to their life, a task they need to perform, or to solving a problem.

Technology-based instruction will be more effective if it uses real-life examples or situations that adult learners may encounter in their life or on the job. Allowing flexibility in the design of a lesson will permit student input on issues that need to be addressed in a class. If students can bring real-life examples of school discipline challenges to a chat session in an online course on behavior management they will be anxious to participate and gain the practical experience which will help them to do better at their job.

Students’ Motivation to Learn

The andragogical model holds that while adult learners may respond to external motivators, internal priorities are more important. Incentives such as increased job satisfaction, self-esteem and quality of life are important in giving adults a reason to learn.

Activities that build students’ self-esteem, or sense of accomplishment through, for example, the completion of goals or modules that can be checked off in a sequence, may help motivate completion of a longer lesson. In addition, student’s input into the development of lessons or in the prioritization of topics covered can help students to take ownership of the learning process. 

In conclusion, the message of this blog is that as content experts, we need to identify our learning and teaching philosophy and specifically apply it to how we use technology in our course offering to enhance student learning.

References

Anson, C. M., & Miller-Cochran, S. K. (2009). Contrails of Learning: Using New Technologies

for Vertical Knowledge-building. [Article]. Computers & Composition, 26(1), 38-48.

doi:10.1016/j.compcom.2008.11.002

Barrington, E. (2004). "Teaching to student diversity in higher education: How multiple intelligence theory can help." Teaching in Higher Education 9(4): 421-434.

Boulton-Lewis, Gillian M., Lynn Wilss, and Sue Mutch. 1996. Teachers as adult learners: Their knowledge of their own learning and implications for teaching. Higher Education 32, (1): 89-106.

Capogrossi, D. (2002). The assurance of academic excellence among non-traditional universities.

Higher Education in Europe, 27(4), 481-490.

Census Department, U. S. (2000). Back to school. Washington, DC: Census Bureau.

Knowles, Malcolm S. 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult Education; From Andragogy to Pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Cambridge Adult Education.

Knowles, Malcolm S., Elwood F. Holton III, and Richard A. Swanson. 1998. The Adult Learner. Houston: Gulf Publishing.

Santangelo, T., & Tomlinson, C. A. (2008). the application of differentiated instruction in

postsecondary environments: Benefits, challenges, and future directions. International

Journal of Teaching & Learning in Higher Education, 20(3), 307-323.

Schuetze, H. G., & Slowey, M. (2002). Participation and exclusion: A comparative analysis of

non-traditional students and lifelong learners in higher education. Higher Education, 44,

309-327

Zhang, J. (2010). Technology-supported learning innovation in cultural contexts. [Article].

Educational Technology Research & Development, 58(2), 229-243. doi:10.1007/s11423-

009-9137-6

Zosky, D. L., Unger, J., White, K., & Mills, S. J. (2003). Non-Traditional and traditional social

work students: perceptions of field instructors. [Article]. Journal of Teaching in Social

Work, 23(3/4), 185-201

Teaching to the test – maybe not a bad idea?

Guest Blogger: David Royer

No, I am not advocating for more standardized testing or teaching to the test in K-12, but I am searching for ways in which we can help our students prepare for the challenge of achieving a competitive score on the standardized exams that are required for admission to graduate and professional schools.  These include the LSAT, MCAT, DAT and GRE.  Most of my experience is with the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), and it is frustrating when a student with an outstanding academic record at Lincoln has an average or below average score.  This disconnect becomes a major obstacle to gaining admission to medical school for our students.  The MCAT is the one common element in every student’s application to medical school; they all take the same test, and medical schools can compare all applicants using this test.  These test scores become particularly important when one of our students applies to a medical school that has never had a Lincoln student or does not know anything about Lincoln. 

From talking to other faculty members, this issue is not restricted to the MCAT

This leads to the question of why the disconnect between MCAT scores and GPA?  I do not have all the answers but one reason is that the test is unlike anything our students have seen before for many reasons.  First, it is a long exam; not counting the breaks, the exam lasts six hours and fifteen minutes; there is one 30-minute break and two 10-minute breaks, all of which are optional.  Second, the exam requires strong reading skills.  As an example, the section on the Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems includes ten passage-based sets of questions with four to six questions per passage.  There are also fifteen independent questions.  The total is 59 questions that must be answered in 95 minutes.  Last, the breadth of the exam is very wide as it includes biology, chemistry, physics, biochemistry, psychology and sociology, the latter two included in a new section that was added to the MCAT  in 2015.

From talking to other faculty members, this issue is not restricted to the MCAT so the question I am posing through this blog is what can we do differently in the classroom to better prepare out students for these exams, and yes, I am suggesting that we do a bit of teaching to the test.  While I agree with most parents and teachers that it is inappropriate in K-12 classrooms, I believe that there must be some things we can do in the college classroom that will improve out students’ scores on these standardized exams without compromising the content of our courses which is also important for strong performances on the exams.

What do you suggest?

Learning beyond exams

If I asked “Are exams a necessary part of college education?”, chances are that many of you would answer yes. As educators we haven’t come up with a better way of measuring student learning, and after all, how would we give grades if we didn’t have exams? But do students learn much from exams? We know that our students often cram in order to pass an exam or quiz, and I hear constant complaints that they do not retain knowledge or that they are unable to apply knowledge learned in one class to projects in another class. While I’m not suggesting that we should blame the lack of learning on exams, I wonder if there are creative ways to use exams to enhance learning beyond the traditional studying that takes place before the exam. What do you do after the exam?

I must admit that akin to this week’s Faculty Focus blogger, I am guilty of often keeping exam debriefs very short; most often I don’t feel like I have the luxury of spending precious classroom time reviewing exams, especially as most students seem to have very little interest in revisiting their exam mistakes. However, if I really want to focus on learning, I know I should take the time – or require the students to take the time – to reflect on their learning through the mistakes they made on the exam. In her blog post, Maryellen Weimer summarizes a few published strategies to enhance learning from exams:

1. Allow students to correct their own questions; this can be done individually or in groups and immediately after the students take the exam (before they know their score) or once the exam has been returned.
2. Require students to reflect on why they made exam mistakes and have them look for patterns that reveal holes in studying strategies, skill mastery, or content knowledge with the goal of improving study techniques for future exams.

I used the first strategy a few times when an entire class performed horribly on an exam; instead of reviewing the exam with the students, I gave them the opportunity to work in groups to correct their mistakes using all available resources including the book and electronic devices. I then re-graded the exams and bumped everybody’s test score with a number of points that was equal to half the difference of the class average of the first and second exam score. This I felt was fair, as the adjusted score still reflected the initial study effort that each student had put in, but also gave everybody the opportunity to raise their scores. Surprisingly, the scores on the re-graded exams were far from perfect, which told me that there were major concepts that the students had not grasped, or the majority of the class had completely misunderstood. This gave me an opportunity to go back and correct misconceptions. In hindsight, I wish I had asked the students to reflect on their learning after the exam and the re-grading exercise, but that will have to wait for a future exam.

How do you handle exam debriefs or retakes? Do you let students take an exam over? How do you deal with exam scores and grades if you allow any kind of re-take? Do you incorporate reflection after exams and, if you do, have you found that it helps students become better learners?